Dynamic monitoring of functional status in athletes performing physical loads in vertical and horizontal planes with equivalent energy supply for muscle training

Yevhen Mykhaliuk; Yehor Horokhovskyi; Anatolii Bosenko; Mykhailo Khoroshukha; Oksana Pavliuk

doi:10.15391/prrht.2025-10(3).03

Authors

Yevhen Mykhaliuk Department of Physical Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine, Physical Education and Health, Zaporizhzhia State Medical University, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3607-7619
Yehor Horokhovskyi Department of Physiology, Immunology and Biochemistry with the course of Civil Defence and Medicine, Zaporizhzhia National University, Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4555-9110
Anatolii Bosenko Department of Biology and Health Protection, South Ukrainian national pedagogical university named after K. D. Ushynsky, Odesa, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3472-0412
Mykhailo Khoroshukha Department of Physical Therapy and Ergotherapy, Borys Grinchenko Kyiv Metropolitan University, Kyiv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5024-5792
Oksana Pavliuk Department of Theory and Methods of Physical Education and Sports, Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0016-2416

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.15391/prrht.2025-10(3).03

Keywords:

runners, swimmers, heart rate variability, central hemodynamics, physical performance, training periods in sport, energy provision for training, sports qualification, correlation

Abstract

Purpose. To dynamically monitor the functional state of athletes undergoing physical loads in vertical and horizontal planes with similar energy demands during the training cycle.

Material & Methods. A total of 47 athletes were examined, including 27 runners at the 400 m distance and 20 swimmers at the 100 m distance in the preparatory and competition periods of the training process. Heart rate variability and central hemodynamics were measured using the automated diagnostic platform Cardio+. Physical performance was assessed on the Corival Lode cycle ergometer using the submaximal PWC170 test.

Results. During the competitive season, runners exhibited a trend towards increased parasympathetic influence and decreased sympathovagal index. Significant decreases were found in heart rate and cardiac index, with a shift in circulation type from eukinetic to hypokinetic. Analysis of circulation type distribution revealed an increase in hypokinetic circulation and the elimination of hyperkinetic circulation. Physical performance significantly improved, with increases in PWC170/kg and physical fitness index. A negative correlation was observed between performance metrics and cardiac index during the preparatory period. Swimmers showed trends towards increased parasympathetic activity and decreased sympathetic activity, though these changes were not statistically significant. A trend towards decreased cardiac index was observed. Circulation type distribution shifted towards hypokinetic circulation. PWC170/kg and physical fitness index significantly increased. Highly-trained runners demonstrated significant decreases in cardiac index and increases in performance metrics during the competitive period. Negative correlations were found between performance metrics and cardiac index. No significant correlations were observed in lower-level athletes.

Conclusions. During the competitive period, compared to the preparatory period, runners and swimmers exhibited a statistically significant increase in physical performance and an improved physical fitness index. Analysis of heart rate variability parameters, however, revealed no statistically significant differences. Correlation analysis revealed that, in the competition period, a decrease in cardiac index to a physiologically advantageous hypokinetic circulatory profile in runners was associated with increased physical performance, while in swimmers, it was associated with a shift in autonomic nervous system vegetative balance. A beneficial outcome of appropriate sports training is the enhancement of functional capacity within the body’s primary systems. This leads to improved athletic performance, as demonstrated by gains observed in runners and swimmers.

References

Boraczyński, T., & Urniaż, J. (2008). Changes in Aerobic and Anaerobic Power Indices in Elite Handball Players Following a 4 Week General Fitness Mesocycle. Journal of Human Kinetics, 19, 131-140. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10078-008-0010-1

Castillo-Aguilar, M., Valdés-Badilla, P., Herrera-Valenzuela, T., Guzmán-Muñoz, E., Delgado-Floody, P., Andrade, D.C., Moraes, M.M., Arantes, R.M.E., & Núñez-Espinosa, C. (2021). Cardiac Autonomic Modulation in Response to Muscle Fatigue and Sex Differences During Consecutive Competition Periods in Young Swimmers: A Longitudinal Study. Frontiers in Physiology, 12, 769085. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.769085

Colan, S.D., Sanders, S.P., & Borow, K.M. (1987). Physiologic hypertrophy: effects on left ventricular systolic mechanics in athletes. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 9(4), 776-783. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0735-1097(87)80232-2

Currie, K.D., Coates, A.M., Slysz, J.T., Aubry, R.L., Whinton, A.K., Mountjoy, M.L., Millar, P.J., & Burr, J.F. (2018). Left ventricular structure and function in elite swimmers and runners. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 1700. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01700

Cybulski, G., Strasz, A., Niewiadomski, W., & Gąsiorowska, A. (2012). Impedance cardiography: Recent advancements. Cardiology Journal, 19, 550-556. https://doi.org/10.5603/CJ.2012.0104

Edmonds, R., Egan-Shuttler, J., & Ives, S.J. (2020). Heart Rate Variability Responses to a Training Cycle in Female Youth Rowers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8391. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228391

Graziano, F., Bondarev, S., Corrado, D., & Zorzi, A. (2024). The Challenges of Screening Master Athletes. Cardiology, 1–4. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1159/000538326

Ghafouri, A., Mohammadi, F., & Ganji, B. (2020). Relationship Between Selected Performance Tests and Non-contact Sports Injuries in Male Wushu Players. The Physical Treatments Journal, 10(4), 239-249. https://doi.org/10.32598/ptj.10.4.459.1

Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology (1996). Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Circulation, 93(5), 1043-1065.

Holmér, I., Stein, E.M., Saltin, B., Ekblom, B., & Astrand, P.O. (1974). Hemodynamic and respiratory responses compared in swimming and running. Journal of Applied Physiology, 37(1), 49-54. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1974.37.1.49

Kamandulis, S., Juodsnukis, A., Stanislovaitiene, J., Zuoziene, I.J., Bogdelis, A., Mickevicius, M., Eimantas, N., Snieckus, A., Olstad, B.H., & Venckunas, T. (2020). Daily Resting Heart Rate Variability in Adolescent Swimmers during 11 Weeks of Training. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), 2097. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062097

Kim, G. E., Kim, S. Y., Kim, S. J., Yun, S. Y., Jung, H. H., Kang, Y. S., & Koo, B. N. (2019). Accuracy and Efficacy of Impedance Cardiography as a Non-Invasive Cardiac Function Monitor. Yonsei Medical Journal, 60(8), 735–741. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2019.60.8.735

Ljungqvist, A., Jenoure, P. J., Engebretsen, L., Alonso, J. M., Bahr, R., Clough, A. F., de Bondt, G., Dvorak, J., Maloley, R., Matheson, G., Meeuwisse, W., Meijboom, E. J., Mountjoy, M., Pelliccia, A., Schwellnus, M., Sprumont, D., Schamasch, P., Gauthier, J. B., & Dubi, C. (2009). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus statement on periodic health evaluation of elite athletes, March 2009. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 19(5), 347-365. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3181b7332c

Mykhaliuk, Ye.L., Misyulin, S.S., & Bobrov, V.A. (1988). State of hemodynamic indices and physical work capacity of light athletics throwers over a yearly training cycle. Sports Training, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1, 25-28.

Mykhaliuk, Ye.L., Syvolap, V.V., & Horokhovskyi, Ye.Yu. (2022). Autonomic support of central hemodynamics and physical working capacity in female swimmers and runners in a one-year training cycle. Zaporozhye Medical Journal, 24(1), 44-48. https://doi.org/10.14739/2310-1210.2022.1.244838

Mykhaliuk, Ye.L., Syvolap, V.V., Horokhovskyi, Ye.Yu., & Potapenko, M.S. (2021). Effect of year-round training on parameters of heart rate variability, central hemodynamics and physical working capacity in short-distance swimmers. Zaporozhye Medical Journal, 23(3), 343-347. https://doi.org/10.14739/2310-1210.2021.3.229452

Mykhalyuk, Ye.L. (2018). Aktual’ni pytannia sportyvnoi medytsyny. Ch.I. [Current issues of sports medicine. Part I] (S.V. Kupriienko).

Mykhalyuk, Ye.L., Didenko, M.V., & Malakhova, S.M. (2016a). The influence of year-round training on the state of the cardiovascular, autonomic nervous system and physical performance of 400-meter female runners. Patolohiia, 1(36), 54-60. https://doi.org/10.14739/2310-1237.2016.1.71189

Mykhalyuk, Ye.L., Didenko, M.V., & Malakhova, S.M. (2016b). Changes in integral indicators of the functional state of female sprinters in the annual cycle of the training process. Bukovyns’kyi Medychnyi Visnyk, 20(2(78)), 91-95.

Mykhalyuk, Ye.L., Malakhova, S.M., & Didenko, M.V. (2016c). Annual observations of the functional state of track and field sprinters. Zhurnal Klinicheskikh i Eksperimental’nykh Meditsinskikh Issledovanii (J. Clin. Exp. Med. Res), 4(2), 201-208.

Mykhalyuk, Ye. L., Malakhova, S. M., & Didenko, M. V. (2016d). Dynamic observations of the vegetative support of central hemodynamics and physical performance of 400-meter runners. Zaporozhskiy Meditsinskiy Zhurnal, 1(94), 29-34. https://doi.org/10.14739/2310-1210.2016.1.64052

Mykhalyuk, Ye.L., Syvolap, V.V., & Tkalich, I.V. (2008). Otsinka funktsional’noho stanu orhanizmu osib, yaki zaimaiut’sia fizychnoiu kul’turoiu ta sportom [Evaluation of the functional state of the body of persons involved in physical culture and sports] (Inform. lyst pro novovvedennia v systemi okhorony zdorov’ia Ukrmedpatentinform ; №234-2008, vyp. 1 z problemy “Likuvarna fizkul’tura ta sportyvna medytsyna”).

Oliveira, R.S., Leicht, A.S., Bishop, D., Barbero-Álvarez, J.C., & Nakamura, F.Y. (2013). Seasonal changes in physical performance and heart rate variability in high level futsal players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(5), 424-430. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1323720

Podstawski, R., Boraczyński, M., Nowosielska-Swadźba, D., & Zwolińska, D. (2014). Heart rate variability during pre-competition and competition periods in volleyball players. Biomedical Human Kinetics, 6, 19-26. https://doi.org/10.2478/bhk-2014-0004

Poliner, L.R., Dehmer, G.J., Lewis, S.E., Parkey, R.W., Blomqvist, C.G., & Willerson, J.T. (1980). Left ventricular performance in normal subjects: a comparison of the responses to exercise in the upright and supine positions. Circulation, 62(3), 528-534. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.62.3.528

Rabbani, A., Baseri, M.K., Reisi, J., Clemente, F.M., & Kargarfard, M. (2018). Monitoring collegiate soccer players during a congested match schedule: Heart rate variability versus subjective wellness measures. Physiology & Behavior, 194, 527-531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.07.001

Sinyugina, M.B., & D’omin, S.S. (2014). Indicators of thoracic rheography in swimmers at rest and after physical exertion in different body positions. Slobozhans’kyi Naukovo-Sportyvnyi Visnyk, 6(44), 101-105. https://doi.org/10.15391/snsv.2014-6.019

Stanley, J., D'Auria, S., & Buchheit, M. (2015). Cardiac parasympathetic activity and race performance: an elite triathlete case study. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 10(4), 528-534. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-019

Wang, X., Yan, C., Shi, B., Liu, C., Karmakar, C., & Li, P. (2018). Does the Temporal Asymmetry of Short-Term Heart Rate Variability Change during Regular Walking? A Pilot Study of Healthy Young Subjects. Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine, 3543048. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3543048

Wasfy, M.M., Weiner, R.B., Wang, F., Berkstresser, B., Lewis, G.D., DeLuca, J.R., Hutter, A.M., Picard, M.H., & Baggish, A.L. (2015). Endurance Exercise-Induced Cardiac Remodeling: Not All Sports Are Created Equal. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography, 28(12), 1434-1440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2015.08.002